During the
period between the 19th century and the middle of the 20th century the advances
in science led to the increasing abandonment of the concept of God and to the
decline of religion. The Universe was regarded as a huge machine. The question
how such a machine came into being and why it was running did not seem to
bother scientists and others. Recent advances in science are altering the
picture completely, and though they do not sufficiently prove the religious
position to convince sceptics and those who have some kind of vested interest
in disbelief, it is no longer an unthinkable alternative. Indeed, it is rapidly
becoming the more reasonable one.
A study of
Astronomy shows that the stars are far away and that because light by which we
see them takes a certain time to travel to us, then we see the stars as they
were in the past and not as they are now. This leads to the conclusion that
time is also a dimension and we must speak of space-time as a field in which
things take place.
However, it was
found that light has a finite speed, 300,000 km per sec., no matter how fast
and in which direction the source of light is traveling. Its speed is
independent of the source. This applies to all electromagnetic radiation. This
speed is, therefore, the maximum at which anything can influence any other
thing. Starting from a point a cone can be drawn in space-time within which the
influence travels. Nothing outside the cone can be affected by anything within
it and vice versa. However, various cones may overlap and the Universal cone
contains all other cones.
All things are
in motion with respect to each other. If two objects are moving with respect to
each other we can regard anyone of them as stationary and describe the motion
of the other with respect to it. Nothing has special claim to be regarded as
the centre from which to judge anything else. From this point of view, we can
consider the earth as stationary and study the motion of all other bodies. Or
we can take any other planet, the sun, any other star, or the centre of the
Galaxy as the centre. We can choose any centre according to what is convenient
or significant to us. When we take the sun as centre the motion of planets are
much more simply explained. But the sun also moves and if we expand the sphere
of interest or observation then the centre of the Galaxy may be more
convenient. And so on. As cosmic bodies tend to form systems within system,
there may be an Absolute Centre to the Universe.
Each individual
is also a centre of observation in a field, which has a horizon. This centre
must be a stable one. He is, however, part of a Community which is also
organized and has a centre. These two centres affect each other.
Suppose we have
a centre of observation X. Two objects, A and B move away from it at different
speeds and directions. After a certain time has elapsed on X, A and B will be
different distances away from X and they will also have reached a certain
distance away from each other. From the point of view of all three the speed of
light is the same. When a signal reaches X from A and B simultaneously, they
have not left A and B simultaneously. When a signal reaches A from X and B
simultaneously they have not left X and B simultaneously. Thus the notion of
simultaneity has altered. It is a relative concept, which also makes space and
time relative concepts
If the speed of
light is a constant then the motion of objects must cause changes in
space-time. As the speed of objects is increased so that it nears the speed of
light, then though relationships on the object itself remain the same, things
will seem to alter on it from the point of view of external observers. And
things in the outer world will seem to alter also from the point of view of an
observer on the object. Mass increases, length in the direction of motion
shortens, and clocks slow down.
The Universe,
according to Cosmologists, is expanding. This implies that at a finite time in
the past, all its matter was concentrated in a very small space. The Universe was, therefore, created with a
Big Bang, an explosion of something, an Entity X, sometimes called the
Primeval Atom. In this small space, the particles of matter were colliding
together with great force. It is this force of collisions that caused the
expansion. Expansion means more room and fewer collisions, and cooling down
means that energy is less concentrated. The speeds of particles diminish and
the collisions are not strong enough to overcome the sticking together of
particles. Therefore, as the Universe expands the particles of matter
progressively combine. This leads to phase changes.
The first phase
change led to the differentiation into gravity and electro-weak force - a force
of contraction and a force of dispersal. A second phase change caused
differentiation into quarks and photons. Photons are the particles of
electromagnetic radiation of which visible Light is a part. A third phase
change caused quarks to combine to form the leptons, the nuclear particles.
Note that
"Let there be light" is, therefore, not the primary but a secondary
phenomena. The first thing created according to the Quran is the Spirit
(17:85).
Once the
Universe is created expansion must continue and Entropy or Disorder must
increase. This is because the difference of pressure between two points ensures
that energy will flow to the point of lower pressure. Statistically speaking if
we have a great number of moving particles then the chances of them being
dispersed is greater than their chances of congregating in a small space. It is
this fact which gives us the direction of time, though most of the Laws of
Physics are time reversible. It requires more energy to reconcentrate energy.
In small areas this can come from outside. But in the Universe as a whole (if
nothing else exists) it cannot come from elsewhere unless the law of
conservation of energy is broken. If it is broken then nothing can be
calculated, predicted or controlled. The First Law of Thermodynamics,
therefore, requires that Energy should always be conserved in all transformations.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy must always increase. This
implies that the Universe will eventually die a heat death because when it is evenly
distributed then energy will cease to flow.
This creates a
problem. How was it that all matter and energy was concentrated in a small area
in the first place? What decided that expansion should take place at a
particular time? Obviously, no physical laws can explain this. Perhaps it was
not so concentrated but is being continuously produced in some centre. There
may be a continuous introduction of negentropy (the opposite of entropy), or
what is the same thing, Order or Information. Information refers to something
that is improbable by chance alone. A cause is needed to explain things that
take place more or less frequently than chance allows. When things are
completely random then they contain no recognizable regularities, patterns or
persistence. That is, they carry no information. Information is, therefore, the
opposite of chaos. This means that we have to admit that something beyond the Universe exists from whence there is an
introduction of Information into the Universe.
However, three
alternative explanations have been proposed by atheists. According to one
suggestion the Universe might have arisen from the fluctuations of random
moving particles - they could by chance gather in a small space and then
disperse. This would be possible if all particles were independent and did not
affect each other. This is not the case. It is also true that examination
through telescopes shows that the Universe is uniform in all directions as to
the distribution of Galaxies. This would not be the case if random fluctuations
were the cause of the Universe. Nor is it likely that these fluctuations would
continue in one direction for so many millions of years as to produce observing
mankind.
The second
suggestion is that when space-time was small, all the energy was uniformly
distributed in it. It is only when space-time began to expand that differences
of pressure occurred. The difference between chaos and order and the second law
of thermodynamics is, therefore, a result of the expanding Universe. But this
still leaves us with the problem why the Universe began to expand.
The third
suggestion is that man can be regarded as being a centre of observation so that
if he looks in any direction far enough he will come to a horizon where
parallel lines seem to meet. This point may be called the Big Bang or the Big
Crunch, the beginning and end of the Universe. This will be so from any point
in space-time and to all observers. Our Universe is then just a small part of a
still greater Universe, especially if we take quantum theory into consideration
and include all possibilities. Either the rules that impose restrictions of
what is possible come from outside the system that is recognized by these
restrictions, or else if we include them in the system we describe something in
which we have included the controller.
As we go
backward in time towards the Big Bang speeds increase and by Einstein's
Relativity Theory Time slows down and space contracts. At the speed of light
Time becomes Eternal. In fact, there was no Big Bang. The Big Bang appears only
if we use the clocks of our time. Since we cannot really measure the time from
outside the Universe and the material of the clocks will also undergo the same
process, it is unreasonable to use our clocks to describe what happened near
the time of the Big Bang. There are, therefore, a great number of possible
clocks. Time is relative. The relativity of time is mentioned also in the Quran
(22:47 and 70:4).
In Newton’s Physics Space and
Time were separate constants in which matter existed and moved. Mass and energy
were two different things. Gravity was some kind of force that acted at a
distance. In Einstein’s physics the velocity of light is a constant. Therefore,
space and time are variable and form a four-dimensional continuum, space-time.
This implies that not objects in space
but events are the fundamental entities. Energy was related to mass by the
famous equation E=MC^2. Gravity consisted of the dents made by masses in
space-time and the motion of masses depends on the curvature of space-time so
produced. These dents could be regarded as describing a fifth dimension. The gravitation
of the Universe could be described by the formula, G=8Pt. But the implication of this
formula was that the Universe would collapse into a Big Crunch due to gravity.
To overcome this apparent defect in the formula, Einstein added a Cosmological Constant
that would just balance this tendency to collapse and give a Flat or constant
Universe. He altered the formula to G+Λg = 8Π. Here
lambda Λ implies that the Vacuum of space-time without any matter in it
contains some kind of energy, a kind of anti-gravity that causes just enough
expansion to overcome the contraction due to gravity. But Hubble showed that
the galaxies were receding away from each other, implying that the Universe was
expanding as a result of a Big Bang. This was confirmed by the discovery of a
background radiation in the Universe in all directions. The Cosmological
Constant was no longer required and Einstein dropped it.
Recent
astronomical observations have changed the picture again. Quasars, which are
very distant objects and, therefore, objects which exist at the beginning of
the Universe, have spectra quite different from the objects closer in space and
time. This implies that the constants of nature were different than they are
now and that the speed of light was greater in the past. In order to account
for the gravity that holds the galaxies together there has to be 10 times as
much matter than can be observed. Thus 9/10 of matter (or energy) appears to be
missing. The rate of expansion of the Universe is not slowing down because of
Gravity but is, in fact, increasing. The Universe is so finely balanced between
collapsing and expanding forever that a very tiny difference in the amount of
mass or energy of the Universe would take it one way or the other. This balance
is inexplicable. The speed of recession of the Galaxies increases the further
they are. Therefore, when the speed of recession becomes greater than the speed
of light no light or any other influence can reach us from these distant
objects. The Universe must have a horizon from whatever point we observe it. If
we go backwards in time then the horizon would diminish even faster than the
Universe contracts. This would make the Universe into many separate chunks
between which there was no interaction. This could not arise from a single Big
Bang. To explain this, an Inflation Theory was proposed which requires that in
the early history of the Universe the expansion must have been very rapid owing
to some matter which no longer exists. This is, of course, pure speculation for
which no evidence exists.
For these
reasons a new Cosmological Theory is now emerging. The Cosmological Constant is
back in fashion. The vacuum or Void of space-time is not “nothing”, but is a
reservoir of potential energy. It seems that the speed of Light has changed
over the history of the Universe. This implies that the Principle of
Conservation of Energy must also be dropped. When the speed of light in the
vacuum of space-time drops then the energy it can contain also drops. This
causes a transfer of energy from the Void to the matter in the Universe. This
is the cause of the expansion of the Universe. In other words, the cause of the
Universe and all things in it is the slowing down of the speed of light. This
may continue to happen causing the Universe to continually change. It may lead
to a series of Big Bangs. There is, of course, no explanation for why the speed
of light should change. Even if a cause for this is discovered, it will be
inexplicable.
Most of the Laws
of Physics are time symmetrical. That is, they work whether we go forward or
backwards in time. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is the only one that gives
directions to time. Given the laws of motion and gravity we can calculate not
only where a planet will be in future but also where it was in the past. But
the Universe has evolved. Time has a direction. The future is different from
the past. The Universe exists because of
broken symmetries. If everything is completely symmetrical and perfect,
nothing new can happen. No time is required. We have perfect homogeneity. We
have Eternal Perfection. The Physical Universe is, therefore, the result of a
Fall, the introduction of an imperfection. Something is taken out of its
position and put somewhere else. The direction of development that results from
this has the function of reversing this, to restore the symmetry and
perfection. The function of man is to be part of this process. All this has
probably been sensed by the Prophets, those who were more sensitive to the
fundamental features of existence.
It is thought
that all the forces in nature arise because the progressive cooling down of the
Universe caused the progressive breaking of symmetries.
The study of
matter shows that there are three kinds of particles:- (a) Hadrons, which exist
in the nucleus such as Protons, Neutrons etc. About 200 have been discovered.
These are now thought of as being formed from 6 varieties of Quarks. (b)
Leptons, which exist outside nuclei such as the electrons, positrons, neutrinos
and their anti-particles. (c) Bosons or Gauge particles, which are involved in
interactions. There are said to be four fundamental forces, and therefore, four
kinds of bosons:- Gravitons for Gravity, photons for electromagnetic force,
gluons for the strong nuclear force which holds the hadrons together. The weak
nuclear force allows radio-activity and is now regarded as the same as the
electromagnetic force. The combination is called the electro-weak force.
It could be
postulated that before the beginning of the Universe there was no Time or
Space, but only Allah. The Universe was created as follows:-
(1) There is
creative impulse, known as the Command of Allah. Out of Nothing comes a pair of
opposite particles. In the beginning there was only one force and only one kind
of particle and its anti-particle, X and anti-X. The continuous creation of
this pair is known as the Big Bang.
(2) 10^43 of a
sec after the Big Bang, some sticking together of particles was possible and we
get separation of two forces Gravity and SWE (A combination of the Strong and
Weak nuclear force with the electromagnetic). Separation occurs between Quarks
and bosons.
(3) 10^35 of a
second after the Big Bang a separation occurs between Quarks and leptons and
SWE separates into the Strong nuclear force and WE (The electro-weak force).
(4) 10
microseconds from the Big bang there is a separation of WE into the Weak
nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. Quarks combine by re-alignment
into Hadrons.
(5) 3 minutes
after the Big Bang Hadrons are able to combine to form the different nuclei. We
now have matter in a state called plasma consisting of a mixture of hadrons and
leptons.
(6) 10,000 years
after the Big Bag sufficient cooling has taken place to allow the combination
of nuclei and leptons to form atoms.
(7) When planets
form and become cool enough, atoms combine to form molecules which later form
crystals and cells, and then multi-cell organisms.
The photon may
be said to be created first. These forms the leptons (electron, positron and
neutrino), and these form the Hadrons, the Protons and Neutrons.
X > Photon > Lepton > Hadron >
Atoms > Molecules > cells > multi-cellular organisms > communities…..
If the various
forces differentiate out of an original single force by phase changes, we can
suppose that the process continues and we get further forces:- Biological,
Psychological and Spiritual, giving us a total of 7.
Gravity and SWE
form a pair of opposites. Equilibrium is retained when they are equal. The size
of a star is a balance between the pressure for expansion created by the
radiation resulting from the thermonuclear reactions in it, and the gravity due
to the mass of the star. The gravity itself causes the shrinkage which produces
the heat by which these reaction are caused. The heat so produced causes the expansion.
If gravity should increase or heat decrease then the star shrinks. The opposite
happens when gravity diminishes owing to the radiation. Gravity causes
shrinkage and increase in density that increases the collisions between
particles. This causes the increase of heat that is radiated out. Heat is also
released when particles combine together to form bigger particles i.e. Hydrogen
into the heavier elements until Iron is formed. (Heavier elements can only be
formed by absorption of more energy.) When all the Hydrogen is used up to form
the other elements then the star cools down and contracts. Thus order increases
and the entropy is radiated out. The radiation of energy means a fall in mass,
which reduces gravity. Thus gravity and radiation are not independent of each
other. Temperature is a measure of the energy of particles. If we cool
something, the energy of particles decreases until motion stops. This point is
Absolute Zero on the Kelvin scale. It is Absolute death.
If we create a
vacuum inside something by emptying materials such as gases, It is still not
empty because it is filled with photons (Electromagnetic radiation). Doubling
absolute temperature causes the photon energy to increase by a factor of 4.
2^4=16. As heating continues, a pair of photon combine to form an
electron-positron pair. These combine to form a pair of photons. When the
temperature is kept steady there is a balance between these processes and we
have a mixture of photons, electrons and positrons. Further heating causes electron-positron
pair to form a neutrino-antineutrino pair. We get a soup consisting of photons,
electrons, positrons, neutrinos, antineutrinos. Here the weak nuclear force is
active allowing neutron decay into proton and electron. Further heating to
10^13 degrees K allows the electron-positron pair to form a proton-anti-proton
or neutron-anti-neutron pair. All these different particles are in balance.
Heating to 10^14 degrees K causes Protons and neutrons and their anti-particles
to disappear giving place to Quark -Antiquark pairs and gluons. The soup
consists of these and the leptons. Higher temps have not been achieved but
theory suggests that at 10^28 degrees K we will get X particles, and a
combination of leptons and quarks. The distinction between any of the particles
disappears. At 10^32 degrees K Time and Space collapse and cease to exist
beyond that temperature.
X particles come
in pairs - X and Anti-X. These can annihilate each other. An X particle can
decay into a positron and an anti-quark. An Anti-X particle can decay into an
electron and a quark and sometimes into two quarks. Thus an X-Anti-X pair can
decay into an electron + two quarks + an antiquark. Therefore, the number of
quarks is greater than the number of anti-quarks. If the quark and anti-quark
recombine then we are left with quarks only. Since these can produce
protons-antiprotons, then the number of protons is also greater and after
recombination we are left with no anti-protons. The protons combine with the
electrons produced by the X-particles to form Hydrogen atoms. This is the
material from which all the other elements are made in the stars. Thus:-
(a) The Universe
is made of matter and no anti-matter can be found. There might be an
anti-world, the other side of a coin, as it were.
(b) The universe
is the result of an initial asymmetry. But this might be the result of the
limits of our perception. We need a contrast to see things, a symmetry inherent
in consciousness versus the asymmetry outside.
(c) This matter
arises from energy, which is the motion of other things.
(d) The creation
of matter out of energy is the reverse process of energy produced from matter,
which happens owing to proton decay.
There is a state
of existence before the X particles come into existence, which is responsible
for the arising of the X-particles and the asymmetry. We will call this Absolute Existence. It is a wholly
Unified State in which all things exist as potentialities. The explanation for
these events and all subsequent events lies in the Absolute. The arising of the
pair of opposites X-AntiX makes no difference to the Absolute because, for any
number n, +n -n = 0. The Absolute, therefore, existed before the Universe
arose, continues to exist and will exist after the Universe disappears. The
production and annihilation of the X-particles is continuous but predictable
only within limits. That is, it is not fully deterministic.
"And of all things have We created pairs,
that you may reflect (or receive instruction). Therefore flee unto Allah,
surely I am a plain Warner to you from Him." 51:49-50
The Universe
will come to an end. This can happen
in either of two ways:-
(1) The
gravitational pull may cause the expansion to slow down and then reverse it.
The Universe will then contract back into a Black Hole. This is an area with
such strong Gravity that nothing, not even light can escape. This event is
called the Big Crunch. However, the scientist Stephen Hawking believes that
Black Holes can radiate and this radiation increases as the size diminishes so
that a Black Hole can become a White Hole. This is because a Black Hole is like
a black body whose surface area A, is proportional to the entropy S, of the
Black Hole. S=kA, where k is Hawkins’s constant = 10^41 calories per degree per
sq. cm. The space around a Black hole is fluctuating, creating a pair of
particles of positive and negative energy (since E=MC^2, matter and
antimatter). The positive particles radiate into space and the negative fall
into the Black Hole neutralizing a positive particle. Thus the Black Hole seems
to radiate while shrinking in mass. It could be that the Universe arose out of
a White Hole and another Universe will arise after this one. However, if
space-time is associated with mass and the whole Universe is confined to a
Black Hole then there is no Space where fluctuations can take place.
(2) The Universe
keeps expanding because the gravitational pull is not strong enough. There will
be a heat death because constant radiation from all bodies leads to a loss of
energy. The flow of energy depends on differences of temperature. As cooling
continues the difference gets lower and lower. However, the Galaxies are bound
together by gravity and may collapse into Black Holes, which will radiate the
energy locked up in matter into space. As space expands, the speed of recession
of galaxies from each other increases beyond the speed of light. Light cannot
then reach us and they cannot be seen.
The Universe, therefore, had a beginning and
will have an end. The
Universe is not the whole of reality.
There is reason
to believe that Gravity can be regarded as negative energy since it tends to
concentrate unlike positive energy, which disperses. Gravity is proportional to
mass. The total energy and mass of the Universe may, therefore, be zero. The phenomena of the Universe are then
purely the result of the changing patterns of waves of various frequencies- of
changes in Information.
Know ledge is
relative. That is, it is based on comparisons and the establishment of
relationships. In order to compare things we measure them, and measuring is the
comparison of things with a measuring instrument, which is used as a standard.
Justice requires that the same measuring scale should be used to measure the
things to be compared - we cannot compare things by using inches for one and centimetres
for another, unless, of course, we convert one to the other. These measuring
instruments are divided into units which are all equal,. But the units are
chosen arbitrarily by man - there is nothing in nature to say that we must us
inches rather than centimetres or any other unit we wish. Therefore, to say
that something is say 8 inches long is not entirely an objective statement. But
to say that one length is twice another is more objective as long as we use the
same scale. It could, however, be the case that things are not as even as is
supposed by the measuring instrument. The measuring instrument is, therefore,
an ideal that is regarded as constant and uniform. Since we are forced to use
measuring instruments as standards, there is no way of determining the nature
of the real object. We all experience time in different ways and at different
occasions - it is uneven, sometimes it passes slowly, sometimes fast. But we
use the motion of a clock to compare things.
It may be better
to use a natural object as the unit of measurement, say an electron or proton
etc. We might then find that all phenomena are comparable as multiples of these
units. Three main units are required in physics that relate to the dimensions
of space (lengths), time and mass. But only two natural constants have been
discovered so far - the velocity of light, c and the Planck’s constant, h which
relates the frequency and energy of photons. These may also change.
It is also
necessary to see things in their own context. The world as we see it is
different from the macrocosmic world of stars and galaxies and from the
microcosmic world of nuclear particles. Consider a particle of size 10^-13 cm
and speed 10^10 cm per sec. If its life time is 10^-10 sec, then it will cover
a distance of 1 cm in its life time. This distance is 10^12 times the size of
the particle. This is a much greater relative life time than human beings have.
At the macrocosmic scale distances are measured in light years. This is the
distance travelled by light at 300,000 km or 3X10^10 cm per sec. Multiplied by
number of seconds in a year, 3x10^7 which gives us 9x10^17 cm. The Cosmic time
scales are also long. The sun turns on its axis in 26 days, but travels round
the galaxy in 230 million years. The Universe has been expanding for about
10^18 sec, 30 billion years.
Suppose we have
a ruler on which the units are 1 inch. We measure the distance between two
points, A and B, and find it to be, say, 10 units. Now suppose we have another
ruler on which the units are 1.1 inches. The distance between the two points is
now only 9 units and a bit more. It is approximate. We could make it more
accurate by sub-dividing the units, and then subdividing those sub-units and so
on. Whereas this can be done in Theory, in Mathematics, it cannot be done in
nature. It is not only the case that the nature of the material changes as we
divide - crystal to molecules, to atoms, to sub-atomic particles etc., but the
measuring instrument is also made of materials and we reach a limit in the form
of a light wave by means of which we see things. If then the object measured is
smaller than the unit of the measuring instrument then we get uncertainty. To
give an analogy, suppose that the smallest unit we have is 1 inch and the object
is a quarter of an inch across. Then the distance between one object and
another, or if it is moving, its speed, given by the distance between the two
points at which it may be at two different times, can only be expressed as
between a certain number of units, n and n+1. The same can be said about the
size of objects. Note that the
uncertainty cannot be attributed to the objects but exists only in our
knowledge of objects.
A distinction
must be made between "things as they are" independently of observers
and "things as seen" by observers. Obviously, we cannot know the
former, which may be defined as things as they are in Allah's Knowledge. But
human efforts try to progressively approach this. The world as seen should not,
however, be confused with the subjective world of fantasy that is peculiar to
the person, though it can become public through communication and infection. It
is objective in that it has elements from both "things as they are"
and the nature of the perceiving mind which has also arisen from the forces and
laws of the universe and a process of adjustment to the world over a long
history. This is common to all Human beings, but consciousness and proficiency
in using the mind varies. It could be asserted that the supposition that human
knowledge is objective in the sense of being "things as they are" is
a superstition.
However, we
could use rays with very short wavelengths to make measurements. There will
still be an uncertainty due to the fact that the actions of the observer affect
the thing observed. The particles are so small that the photon used to measure
the position and velocity, momentum or energy of the particle will, on bouncing
off the particle, change its motion. According to Heisenberg's Uncertainty
Principle it is not possible to know both the position and the velocity of an
elementary particle accurately. We have to take a statistical average from many
measurements. When the average uncertainties of position Q and momentum P are
multiplied these must equal or exceed Planck's constant, h. Q x P >/= h. No
instrument can be created which gives a more accurate result than this. If Q=0,
i.e. we have complete certainty of position, then P must be infinite and vice
versa. If h were 0 then we would have complete accuracy in both.
In classical
Physics the objects studied are large and the inaccuracies are relatively
trivial and can be ignored. We can determine the position and velocity of an
object at time t1 and applying the law of motion, calculate the position and
velocity of that object at any other time t2. Making a sufficient number of
calculations gives us the exact trajectory of the object. But in Quantum
Physics measurement gives only a certain probability. We cannot know the state
of object until we make another measurement. It is not possible to know the state of the particle between two
measurements. We only have a range of possibilities and these collapse into
an actuality when the measurement is made. The selection from a range of
possibilities is made by the observer. The action of measuring (or any other
action that brings the observer or his instruments in contact with the object)
determines what happens. More generally, the contact of one particle with any
object affects what is actualized. Any object can be regarded as the observer
if it has memory - i.e. it is modified and this modification is the record of
the contact. There is an increase in information that is paid for by an
increase of entropy elsewhere in the world - a process that gives the direction
of time. The object is not, therefore, isolated from the rest of the world.
There is an indeterminate field of potentialities in the time and space between
the points of contact. The actual
Universe at every moment is the result of all the interactions that are taking
place. It is being recreated every instant.
One of the
causes of the uncertainty is that the elementary entities can be regarded as
particles that have position, but also as waves. When a light is shone on a
screen having two holes and a photographic plate behind it, then we get
interference patterns in the photograph just as if to waves proceeded from the
two holes. But if the light photons were particles we would have to say that
these particles went through both holes, which is impossible, or we could not
predict which hole it would go through. The two descriptions are mutually
exclusive but complementary. Experimental situations and instruments can be set
up to study these entities as particles or as waves, but not both. Therefore, the results depend on what the
observer's intention and actions are, and what instruments and conditions he
sets up. We may add that the conceptual system and mode of thinking (the
mathematics etc.) he uses is also relevant. The faculties (senses,
intellect or consciousness) used by man to observe the world can be regarded as
instruments. The context or realms to which the statements apply are also
important. Some of these when transferred from the quantum to the ordinary
world in which we live do not make sense.
We have to distinguish between different levels of Reality.
This result is
not different from the Islamic attitude which also requires that we use a
certain conceptual system provide by the Quran, set up a certain way of life
with certain motives and certain actions and this will lead us to perceive and
enter a higher reality than that which is available to us now.
One of the
consequences of uncertainty is that it is possible that many particles of small
size might exist below the limits of observation. If the electromagnetic field
is considered, it fills all space and fluctuates. It may contain a great number
of "virtual particles" which are undetectable but with short life
times, being constantly created and annihilated. But in order to be
undetectable they must have no effects at all. This can only be possible if
there are both particles and anti-particles. This means that there is negative
energy and negative mass, antimatter. Space
can be regarded as being like a bottomless ocean containing potentially
infinite energy. Only the surface is
visible to us and constitutes a small part of the totality. This is
completely compatible with the Islamic notion of Allah. The particles at the surface are positive and are responsible for
the existence of our Universe. Holes below the surface may arise if a particle
moves to the surface. This surface particle is positive and the hole left
behind is negative, being equal and opposite. The particle may fall into the
hole, annihilating both and giving off the energy as photons.
The electron is
regarded as consisting of a field of probable locations around a centre of
maximum probability. This field is thought of as rotating. The radius of the
electron can then be regarded as the average of that the field. Suppose that a
particle under consideration is smaller than our units of measurement. It is
not completely spherical, but has some shape such that it is slightly elongated
in one side. Suppose it spins fast. It will give the impression of being
spherical. It may even give the impression of pulsating, contracting and
expanding alternately. Now suppose it is hit by another particle of the same
kind. The two particles now fly off in different directions with different
speeds. It would be possible to calculate the directions and speeds of these
particles provided one knew the structure of these particles, their speeds,
spin and exactly which part of one hit which part of the other. This, however,
is quite impossible. Things will appear to happen by chance but this is merely
another name for ignorance and inability to calculate. The direction of motion
clearly depends on both particles, the object under consideration and the
external impacting particle. Each particles has a degree of autonomy of its
own. If, however, there were a great number of particles they would all be
constrained by each other depending on density and forces of cohesion, to form
an average result. Processes are,
therefore, statistical in nature. That is they lie between complete determinism
and indeterminism. Between absolute order and absolute chaos.
It follows that
the results are dependent on conditions. These can vary greatly. The conditions
in nature are not the same as the conditions of experiment in a laboratory. But
the results of a laboratory can be transferred to the outside world in the form
of technology if the same conditions can be maintained. This, however, gives
the illusion that a scientific description based on experiments is telling us
something objective and universal about nature.
There is a
mystery connected with the fundamental notions of physics.
The first
mystery is the nature of the dimensions, space and time, and gravity may also
be one as it is a dent in space-time. It was thought in the past that space and
time were some kind of Absolute fields in which things occurred. But now space,
time and gravity are seen to be linked, and to be relative to masses and their
motions.
The second
mystery is the existence of Laws. These are regularities which persist- e.g.
something A is always related to something B by something C. In fact they are
so related under condition D which, if it alters, gives us a different
relation. Nevertheless, regularities exist. Without them life would be
impossible because we could not recognize, predict or control anything. Information
is connected with laws. They are like rules without which there can be no game.
The third
mystery concerns the fundamental notions of matter and energy. It is now known
that energy is a more fundamental concept than matter. The mass of something is
the quantity of matter in it. But it is the same thing as the inertia, the
resistance to motion. And yet according to Einstein's formula E=MC^2, energy is
proportional to mass. (C is the speed of light which does not vary - it is
constant of proportionality.) Mass is, therefore, inherent energy. Other forms
of energy are Kinetic, the motion of particles, spin, and potential energy
which is a kind of tension. A pendulum moves from a point of maximum height
where its speed or Kinetic energy is zero to its lowest point where its speed
or kinetic energy is maximum. It then moves back up the highest point
converting the kinetic energy to potential energy, which in the downward
journey is reconverted into Kinetic energy. Here E= mgh (mass x force of
gravity x height) = 1/2mv^2 (half x mass x velocity squared). Mass may be
similar to potential energy which can be turned into kinetic energy as in the
atomic bomb. It is the amount of energy needed to bring a thing out of the
space-time hole and render it smooth again.
The height
reached by the pendulum represents the resistance against gravity, which is
pulling down. It seems, therefore, that energy is the result of a tension
created when a state of equilibrium is disturbed. It is the tendency to restore
the equilibrium and is proportional to the disturbance. If the Universe is
originally in a state of homogeneity, then the creation of energy requires that
some kind of disturbance should be introduced into it. The source of
disturbance cannot be in the Universe itself since it tends to achieve and
maintain equilibrium.
A confusion,
however, arises because some people define the totality of that which exists as
the Universe. If this is done then the notion of what “Universe” means has
changed - it is usually regarded as the product of energy, mass and
information, not its source. The fact is that there is what has been called the
Void that is not “nothing” and that there are things below the level of human
observation. It is also certain that evolution does take place and cannot be
regarded as having come to an end with the present state of man. The
potentialities that exist have not yet been wholly actualized. The concept of
God may be regarded as referring to the source of all Potentialities (38:36).
All forms of
energy can be converted into each other and we have a Law of Conservation of
Energy. But if Energy is defined as the quantity of motion what is it that is
moving? Perhaps energy can be converted into negentropy or order, the opposite
of entropy. Certainly, a great amount of energy is absorbed when ice or snow
crystals are formed from water or any other kind of order is created. The
relationship between energy and entropy is given by E=St, where E is energy, S
is entropy and t is temperature.
Max Planck
discovered a relationship between Energy and frequency of a light wave. The
formula is E = hv where v is the frequency and h is Planck's constant, 6x10^-27
ergs per cycle. We could, therefore, suppose that vibration in space-time is
the fundamental notion. We ought to describe and explain all phenomena in terms
of frequencies. This is another way of saying that the Words of Allah are
responsible for existence.
Another mystery
is Charge. What is it? Charge is the electrical property of electrons. The
charge on all electrons is exactly the same - it can be neither more nor less.
There are positive and negative charges. Like charges repel and opposite ones
attract. If an electron has a certain extension in space then if the charge is
distributed over the whole of it why do different parts of it not repel and
disintegrate the electron? A positively charged electron is known as a positron
and can be regarded as travelling backwards in time from the future to the
present. The electron and positron attract and annihilate each other forming
two photons, which are the neutral particles of light (or any other
electromagnetic radiation).
A fourth mystery
concerns force. What is it? It is defined as that which produces a change. How
do we know they exist? We cannot see forces but only the changes. So we measure
the change of motion to determine the strength of the force. But this is a
circular argument! In fact, we assume that all things must be uniform, and then
when things change, we want to know a cause for this. But this is not different
from the attitude in Religion. We wish to know the cause of the arising of the
Universe or any other phenomena, and we call the ultimate cause of all things
God. In science, however, we have four fundamental forces. There may be a fifth
one connected with the Cosmological Constant. Scientists cannot be satisfied
with this because this means that there are four unexplained fundamental
things. This cannot make for harmony and consistency. They want to reduce them
to one. Something in the end must, however, remain unexplained because
everything else has to be explained by means of that One. To put it another way: There must be an Absolute which is
self-explanatory.
But the notion
of force is also connected with regularities and laws, and therefore, with
something constant underlying changes. The force of gravity, for instance, is
governed by the law of Gravity that things attract each other proportional to
the sum of their masses and inversely as the distance between them. This law
remains the same though there are many moving bodies with different masses and
distances between them. The notion of
Force is, therefore, something that reconciles change with constancy.
But why is
uniformity and homogeneity taken for granted? This is because knowledge is relative
and things must be contrasted from it and then related to it. We see B because
it stands out from a background A, and we have to explain it by finding a
relating factor C between the two. Thus, homogeneity is restored. It follows that we see things only because
there is an inherent assumption that there is a Unitary Absolute. This has
to do with the way our minds are constructed and work. We become conscious when
a stimulus affects us. A stimulus is an opposition, which may be defined as a
problem. This opposition activates us. The attack/flight/defence mechanism is
aroused and this refers to three ways in which the problem can be tackled. The
purpose of the activity is to supply the solution, which is a third reconciling
factor and so restore homogeneity. This third factor C, can be regarded as that
which originally held the two opposite factors A and B together. The separation
between them, itself, is the result of the isolation of C. The distinction
between spirit and matter (spirit is usually confused with mind but ought to
refer to consciousness), the observer and the thing observed, is one form of
this opposition. The purpose of Life (things having minds) may therefore, be
regarded as problem solving.
A fifth mystery
is the fact that there are certain constants in nature which are inexplicable
in terms of anything else and must simply be accepted. These
include the Velocity of light, c; the Gravitational Constant, G; Plank’s
Constant, h, a quantum unit of electromagnetic energy; and so on. Other
things appear to be coincidences. Without them, not only life, but the Universe
itself would not exist.
The stars (our sun is one) consist mostly of
hydrogen. All the other elements are formed in them because gravitation causes
the compression, which creates great pressure and heat. The atoms then collide
and hydrogen atoms combine to form helium which combines with more hydrogen to
form the other elements. But these disintegrate very soon. How then can the
other elements form? Hoyle and Saltpeter calculated that this was only possible
if 3 helium atoms combined to form carbon first. The chances of this happening
are small until the amount of helium became great enough. And then only because
Carbon happens to have an orbit for electrons of energy level 7.82 million
electron-volts. It would then stay stable for long enough for other atoms to
join up and form the heavier elements. Carbon is also unique in the ability to
form organic compounds on which life is based.
All this is a
result of the constants of nature, but also of a combination of the motion of
many electrons, and not directly the result of a natural law.
The mass of
proton divided by the mass of the electron = 1836.104. The fine structure
constant given by the square of the electric charge of an electron divided by
the product of the speed of light and Planck's constant = 5.9041183x 10-39. A 1% change in the fine
structure constant could prevent the sufficient formation of carbon in stars to
make life. A small variation in G would make the existence of stars like our
sun impossible. It would only produce Red Dwarfs or Blue Giants making life
impossible. If the force between the proton and neutron within an atom were to
be a fraction stronger then no hydrogen could exist, nor could the stars and
many compounds such as water. If the density of the Universe had been 1/1000
more than it is, it would have re-collapsed in 10 years after creation. If it
had been 1/1000 less it would have expanded so fast as to be empty because no
stars or galaxies could have condensed. If the rate of expansion of the
universe was greater or less than it is, then the concentration of matter into
different galaxies and stars could not have taken place. If the gravitational
mass of protons were different there would be no stars in which the elements
could have been formed. If the difference between the mass of protons and
neutrons were not twice the mass of electrons we could not have the stable
nuclei which make up the elements. Thus it seems that all existence depends on
certain initial conditions that cannot be explained.
By chance alone,
the probability that a simple protein molecule can be formed is of the order 1
in 10^113 i.e. one with 113 zeros after it. This is a greater than the total
number of atoms estimated to exist in the universe. But around 2000 proteins
are needed to create a single cell. The chances of this occurring are 1 in 1
with 40,000 zeros after it. The Universe, however, is regarded as having been
in existence for a much shorter time than would allow all the alternatives to
be actualized. Chance cannot, therefore, be responsible for this. The cause of
the arising of life must also be integral to the principle that gave rise to
the constants.
Facts such as
these give the impression that the Universe was created so that man can arise.
But in order to avoid the implication that there is purpose in the Universe and
that man is the goal of all things, atheist scientists have proposed the Anthropic Principle. According to this
man has arisen because conditions happened to be suitable, not the other way
round. If they had not been suitable, we would not be here to wonder. This,
however, also implies that if we are given a number of alternatives in science
we have to choose the one that allows rational human beings to arise. If the
Universe can be explained in rational terms, as much of it can, then the
Universe must be rational. The field or Framework in which it exists cannot be
different from the field in which our ideas of it exist, our mind. On the other
hand, we are seeing only that part of the totality that conforms to our mind.
Much of existence may lie outside it. The scientific description of the world
is a human one and cannot exist without human being. It should not be confused
with that which exists apart from human beings. On the other hand the human
mind has arisen from the forces of nature and by a long history of adaptation
to the world. It should not, therefore, be surprising that it can think about
the World and deal with it. But this world does contain human beings and their
consciousness. This cannot be ignored.
The Quran does
not say that the Universe was created for man, but that both were created to
serve Allah; that there is a direction of development and a destined goal. Man
was created as vicegerent on this planet and could use all things to fulfil his
purpose. All this is completely compatible with science and common observation.
“Have they not pondered upon themselves? Allah
created not the heavens and the earth, and that which is between them save with
Truth and for a destined end.” 30:8 and 38:28
"Assuredly the creation of the heavens and
the earth is a greater thing than the creation of mankind. But most of mankind
know not.” 40:57
"And when thy Lord said unto the angels: I
am about to place a Vicegerent in the earth, they said, "Wilt Thou place
therein one who will do evil therein and shed blood? We celebrate Thy praise
and hallow Thee.(Allah) Said: I know what ye know not." 2:30
"If He will He can be rid of you and bring
in your stead some new creature.” 35:16
"If He will He can remove you and cause
what He will to follow after you, even as He raised you from the seed of other
folk." 6: 134