The main
objections to the Darwinian Evolution Theory are as follows:-
(1) The theory
is too dead and mechanical whereas living things are alive and motivated. They
are not passive, but have urges and drives. Their behaviour is governed, at
least partly, by their internal organization. Connected with these drives is
cognitive ability, selectivity and the capacity to act to various degrees.
(2) Evolution is
not merely adaptation to changing circumstances at the same level, but there is
an accumulation (there is an addition of characteristics) and there is a
direction to this process. There is increasing complexity. Reproduction is
expansion of a species. The individual grows from a single fertilized cell into
an adult consisting of millions of cells, but these are organized. Memories
accumulate – they are not simply replaced. They become more organized.
Organization depends on three factors:- (a) the containing forces which
separate (b) the inner forces from (c) the external forces. It appears to be a
compromise between two opposite process, of separation and unification,
analysis and synthesis. It is a transitional state between two states of
uniformity.
(3) That
evolution is not smooth and continuous either in kind, variation and speed.
There are discontinuities and gaps. (a) Sometimes the rate of change is very
slow and sometimes it is fast. Aging, for instance, causes changes owing to
accumulation of mutations in the organism. But it is sometimes very gradual and
sometimes it produces a crisis owing to the collapse of some system. (b)
Sometimes there are few variations and suddenly there is an explosion of
diversity. (c) Different organisms do not vary from one another in a single
mutations, but a change requires the simultaneous occurrence of a number of
co-operative changes. Changes take place from one state of viability or
stability to another in a jump without intermediate stages, though there is a
degree of flexibility within each state. Single mutations usually disrupt the
functioning of the organism – they are harmful. It is, therefore, necessary to
look for:- (a) Some kind of “Buffer” that prevents such harmful effects. (b)
The factor that accounts for the co-operation. (c) How a number of mutations
taking place over time remain dormant until a correct combination is achieved
that can produce a viable condition.
(4) Organisms
are not rigid invariables that can be described by precise concept required by
logical arguments. The individual examples in a class are not identical. The
same organism has a range of possible characteristics and there is a degree of
uncertainty about their behaviour. They are “fuzzy” entities in that each is a
bundle of probabilities such that several actual behaviour patterns are
possible according to the environment with which they interact. This gives them
adaptability. The degree of adaptability varies.
(5) Organism are
not just simple objects but organized system. They are complex systems
belonging to higher systems and containing systems as parts. These contain many
feed back mechanisms and many kinds of balances between opposite, positive and
negative, enabling and disabling forces and processes. The whole is more than
the sum of the parts owing to the organization and has a controlling influence
on the parts, and the parts tend to adjust to the whole. This may be because
the whole consists of a structured electrical or quantum field. This capacity
for adjustment can be defined as intelligence. Each system has a degree of
tolerance within which it can vary without collapsing. Biologists tend to place
their attention on the structure and function of the parts and their
inter-relationships, but never or seldom on the affect of the whole on the
parts and of the parts on the whole. Indeed, science appears not have any
techniques for dealing with this aspect of things.
(6) The notion
that evolution is like a tree in time which is continually branching does not
give quite the correct picture. In this view the present is represented only by
the ends of the branches and are separate from each other, the rest of the tree
having disappeared into the past. In fact all organisms at any time interact
directly or indirectly. Evolution is better represented by an organism that
grows from the single cell through various stages into a multi-cellular adult. Each
organism interacts with its environment consisting of all the other organisms.
The Biosphere itself is part of the planet, which is part of the rest of the
Cosmos. It is the whole that is evolving.
(7) Evolution is
regarded as being caused by variations and Natural selection by the environment
the characteristics that gives the organism the best advantages in its struggle
to survive and reproduce against competition. However, co-operation and
unification also provide advantages. There are several ways in which variation
takes place, mutations being one of them. The word “mutation” refers to a small
change. Biologists suppose that an accumulation of small changes this will get
rid of the religious notion of creation, because these are regarded as caused
by random factors and not by intelligent design. But it does not do so, because
they still require causes. One could argue that a mutation is a creative act
and causes for it are inherent in the whole of existence – it may be caused by
radiation, chemicals, biological agents such as viruses, physical,
psychological and social stresses. The germ cell (the sperm and ova) was
regarded as being well protected from the forces that affect the rest of the
organism. But the evidence is that nothing is wholly isolated and the germ
cells are also affected by changes and stresses in the rest of the body. No
mutation can take place that the structure of the organism or gene does not
allow. A mutation is, therefore, a result of the forces in the environment, the
nature of the entity, the system, gene or chromosome and the relationship
between the two. A mutation is thought of by some biologists as a “mistake” in
replication. But the fact is that nature ensures variation because this allows
adaptation and evolution, thereby overcoming destruction. It is not a mistake,
but is selected. In fact, we can regard it as an aspect of Natural
Intelligence. The continuity of life is a balance between change and constancy.
Owing to the
controlling effect of the whole, not all mutations are evident. Many lie
dormant and are hidden. Some environmental conditions are suitable for
particular systems and others are not. They are harmonious in the one case and
disharmonious in the other. When they are disharmonious they cause stresses and
strains. Cells under stress tend to cause proteins to become unstable until
required. A “chaperone” protein , hsp90, has been found, which binds to
unstable proteins to keep them stable, and, therefore, in a “stand by” state.
This keeps harmful mutations in abeyance. There may be a number of such
proteins. They could collectively be called “Protectors”. Stresses can
deactivate this protein, causing the defective gene to express itself.
Conversely known defects could be suppressed by means of these proteins. When
environments change and stresses are produced that prevent the Protectors from
functioning, then this allows variation to arise, because the mutations are
allowed to express themselves. When these mutations co-operate usefully then
they may become independent of the Protectors. It may be that an anti-protector
protein is produced that neutralizes the Protector. As people age the number of
mutations accumulate and this may cause sudden changes owing to the collapse of
a system.
Evolution, we
see, is the result of the operation of these Protectors. Their behaviour is not
independent of their environment and they cannot arise or operate except within
a system. These systems must be pre-supposed.
(8) Evolution
depends on the striving for, arising and accumulation of advantages.
(a) Advantages A
are definable as some kind of enhancement that depends on the relationship
between three factors:- the characteristics C of the entity or organism and its
environment E and the relationship R between the organism and its environment.
Advantages could, therefore, arise by changes in characteristics of the
organism or its environment or the way it relates to it.
(b) The
characteristics of the organism consist of a combination in different
proportions of three factors:- (i) inherent genetic factors (ii) factors
acquired from the environment through experiences recorded in memory. (iii) the
results of volitional efforts, exercises and striving. For instance, exercises
strengthen the muscles or talents and these bestow advantages that are beyond
those bestowed by the genes unaided or by the environment when the organism is
passive. But it is the genetic factor that creates the conditions that allow
selective perception and recording of experiences and also the volitional
capability. The efforts depend on the instincts, motives, drives and values and
the way they are channelled. At the lowest level the genetic factor is of
greatest importance. At a higher level the effects of the environment become
increasingly more important. At a still higher level it is the deliberate
conscious efforts that are increasingly more important. The Progress of
science, technology, organization, education, the culture and civilization depends
on this conscious effort, and the few who have this ability and exercise it.
(c) Advantages
may be of three types or at three levels:- Those that enable (i) physical
survival, (ii) reproduction and (iii) expansion e.g. of abilities, adaptability
etc. These three are not the same, but affect each other.
(d) The
characteristics and the environment to which it relates are of three kinds – (i)
Physical,(ii) Social and (iii) Psychological. The organism does not only have
to adapt to its physical environment but also to the community of which it is
part. Some of the characteristics that organisms develop are wholly social in
nature and concern not outer physical changes but changes in behaviour (which
are due to inner changes) and have only a social function. But they enhance
physical survival indirectly through the community or herd. At a third level,
it is psychological characteristics such as the capacity for consciousness,
self-control, empathy, language, forming abstract ideas and a world of symbols
and so on that become important.
(9) What does
evolution mean? What does it consist of? What is it that is evolving? These
questions are seldom asked or answered. It is certainly not an individual fish
that became a land animal, or a particular dinosaur that became a bird, or a
certain ape that became a man. We have to distinguish between three levels of
existence and experience:- (a) Level 1 - the material. This refers to what we
can perceive through our senses at particular times in space. (b) Level 2 - the
mental. This requires us to create concepts abstracted from our memories.
Evolution refers to something about which we have formed concepts and a
continuity of changes in time. It is not itself a material process but takes
place through it but not wholly. (c) Level 3 - the spiritual. This refers to
order and the powers and function of things in the scheme of all things. It is
an increase in complexity, awareness, integration, control, sense of
responsibility and progress towards harmony and Unity. Evolution ultimately
refers to a spiritual process.
A great many
characteristics exist that cannot be explained by their survival value, but by
their sexual appeal. e.g. the elaborate feathers of the peacock. The selection,
it is said, is done by the female and evolution, therefore, depends on her
preferences. But this is a one-sided biased view, because the male also has to
attract the female by his behaviour. The development of the human brain can
also be explained by the preference by women for the more intelligent and able
male. This preference also causes men to compete and cultivate their talents
and produce much work such as poetry, art and philosophy, which had no survival
value. Women would also have to compete and cultivate methods of attracting and
keeping their mate. This would have survival value in a competitive environment
because the female would be choosing a mate more able to protect her and her
children. The same would be the case if parents choose more able spouses for
their daughters. The values current in a society will affect the choice, and
these may well derive from what is perceived as good or useful or superior.
Non-objective values will be disadvantages. However, this is impossible unless there
is a perception of relative values and this means that there must be a scale of
excellence and an in-built evolutionary striving. The fact that young animals
play to exercise and extend their abilities and that in many species only a
dominant male is allowed to reproduce shows that some aspects of behaviour have
neither survival nor reproductive value. Indeed, the struggle for existence is
brought about by the fact that all species tend to expand.
Biologists speak
of “Junk DNA” because most genes appear to have no function. But this idea
could be a mistake. Most mutations form recessive genes and manifest themselves
only when two people having the same gene have off-springs. Unless it is on the
X-chromosome then it will show up because there is no corresponding gene on the
Y chromosome. (all the other 22 chromosomes, known as autosomes are paired and
the 23rd chromosome is paired only in females – they have 2. But males have one
X and one Y. If the mutation is on the Y it will show up only in males. Genes
on the X chromosome appear to have much greater connection with intelligence as
well as the sex drive than other genes. But it is also the case that many genes
do not become active until suitable conditions exist and are activated by
proteins or other genes. The existence of a great number of inactive genes,
therefore, implies that human beings have vast potentialities both for
adaptation to a variety of environments but also a great many hidden talents
and powers.
There have been
qualitative and “phase” changes in the history of evolution besides changes in
the quantity of abilities. This means that the laws or rules regulating
behaviour and development have also changed. Things that apply to minerals do
not necessarily apply to plants and vice versa; nor do things applying to
plants, animals and man apply necessarily to the others. Each stage transcends
the one before. Minerals can form crystals but they are mostly (but not wholly)
inert and passive, requiring external forces to cause motion and change. If we
represent the world or environment by a circle A, then we can represent a
material object by a circle B within A. There is interaction between A and B.
Plants have a certain self-regulatory ability and can grow and repair
themselves. Their structure and behaviour is wholly governed by their genes.
They can be represented by two concentric circles C within B (or three
concentric circles if we understand an entity not to be independent of the
environment with which it is inter-dependent). B is the environment for C and
there is interaction between them. Animals in addition can move and actively
seek and recognize food. Their brain, which records experiences, governs their
behaviour, but it is mostly instinctive. They can be represented by a three
concentric circles, D within C within B (or four concentric circles). Human
behaviour, though also affected by their genes, has become increasingly more
dependent on factors acquired from experiences in their physical, social and
cultural environment. In addition they have the capacity to form images think
and manipulate the data of experience within their minds as well as their own
limbs. All this has allowed them to create Culture and Civilization. The Laws
of the jungle do not necessarily apply to man and man should transcend them.
This is because greater intelligence and perception has also enhanced feelings
such as fellow feeling, compassion, empathy, the range of motives, and motor
abilities including control over ones own muscles, feelings and thoughts. This requires still another centre of control.
They can be represented by four concentric circles, E within D within C within
B. Further evolution can be represented by three possible further circles, F, G
and H which could represent stages described as Self-consciousness, Objective
Consciousness and Cosmic Consciousness. H will in a certain respect be the same
as A.
Genes work in
threes to produce the proteins required for the operation of the body and to
activate other genes. The same gene can act within different triads. A gene
can, therefore, be responsible for many characteristics. And a particular
characteristic can be the result of the co-operation of many genes.
Characteristics regarded as harmful may be associated with characteristics
regarded as useful. But the harmfulness or usefulness of the characteristic may
depend on the environment in which it operates and on the value judgments. It
is perfectly possible that human intervention which tries to get rid of what is
considered to be a bad characteristic will cause the elimination of what is
considered to be a good characteristic now or could be so considered in future
or was considered so in the past. Conversely, the deliberate cultivation of
what is considered to be a good characteristic may result in the proliferation
of a bad or harmful characteristic.
The increase in
self-awareness and conscious self-control appears to be a much better
alternative and is, probably the future of evolution.
A critic of
Islam wrote:-
The Theory of
Evolution is well established but the objections to it are based on religious
ideas such as those in the Quran. We have to argue about the Quran, but Muslims
object to this. Argumentation is essential to the learning process. Otherwise
all you have is programming.
Comment:-
I do not agree.
Argument is simply about defending ones prejudices. It is a contest where the
aim is to win. Those who seek knowledge have to make an effort to gather facts
and to process these. This requires a receptive mind, intelligence and insight.
Critic:-
We know
evolution is a fact, unlike God. There is nothing that 'comes from God'. We are
products of this earth - and everything we produce, including our mythology, is
also ultimately from this earth.
Comment:-
We certainly are
product of the earth in so far as we are made of its materials. We do not deny
this (Quran 32:7-9). But we believe the Spirit that accounts for consciousness
is an emanation from God and is therefore much more fundamental than the
physical Universe. The Universe we know exists in our consciousness.
Consciousness is probably connected with the Quantum or some sub-quantum field,
in any case beyond the boundaries so far reached by science.
Critic:-
Exactly! You are
doing what all theists do - ascribe to God that which you can't explain. This
trait is a constant throughout human history. What we don't understand we
explain with the supernatural. How did life come to be? God made us. Why is the
sun disappearing in the sky (an eclipse)? A dragon is eating it. But as our
knowledge of the natural increases more and more of these myths get exchanged
for observable, objective facts and perfectly rational explanations. Now you
have a problem, reconciling these facts with the contents of the Quran.
Comment:-
You are
mistaken. As Allah is understood as the fundamental Self-existing Reality, the
origin of all things, we attribute everything to Him. But we are also required
to seek knowledge and that provides us with the information about the process
by which things were brought into existence. There is no contradiction.
The difference
between Religion and Science is that Religion is about values and significance
and science is about facts. The religious view is holistic and the scientific
one is analytical. Science proceeds from the particular to the universal and
this requires Induction. While Religion proceeds from the Universal to the
particular and this requires Deduction. It is not difficult to see that though
science is proceeding towards a comprehensive Unity and complete knowledge it
is not there yet. Nor is religion a complete explanation of all things but
there is a striving towards it. But while science attempts to be a public
explanation that requires socially acceptable criteria, religion is a personal
one that requires personal understanding and insight. It is, of course, also
true that Religions concern communities and this requires some consent about
doctrines and that Science advances because of the personal efforts of
scientists, but it is not too difficult to see the differences. There is a
difference between reality, experience and description. Science is concerned
with descriptions and uses experience (experiment, observation and reason) as
means. Religion is concerned with adaptation to reality and uses experience
(practices and discipline and meditation) as means.
We do not only
want to know about isolated items but also how they relate to each other and to
us and how everything including ourselves fits into a comprehensive
self-consistent system. We want this because it also leads to our own
adjustment to Reality, development and integration. As life consists of
perception, motivation and action and requires not only facts but also meaning
and values, it is not difficult to see which attitude is the more intelligent
one.
We make a
distinction between body, mind and spirit (or soul) – the physical (or
material) structure, the patterns of behaviour (interaction, energy) and
consciousness. Whereas, science concerns itself with physical evolution, for
Islam evolution is a spiritual process which can manifest as a physical process
or use it as a means. In either case it is mediated by behaviour.
Physical evolution
in so far as the scientific theory is a fact comes from God, it is the way God
has created. We say that we have been created by God and we also know very well
how we have arisen by the natural process. We do not see any contradiction
between these.
Critic:-
So you reject
the creationist myth found in the three scriptural religions from the Middle East?
Comment:-
You say they are
myths - but what do you understand by myth? Some people would say that they are
like formulae encapsulating a truth - not different in function from scientific
formula - but different in purpose and applying to different kinds or sets of
facts.
But as science
is an ongoing enquiry with changing theories I do not believe it is known how
Evolution takes place.
Critic:-
Then you are a
little behind the times. It is known in great detail how evolution takes place,
and it is a well established scientific fact that evolution did take place and
that the one thing the three scriptural religions got dead wrong was how humans
- and all life - came to be.
Comment:-
I keep up with
modern researches - I get Science magazines. I know very well that the
Biological Theory is about the facts of physical evolution, that there is much
speculation and that this is supposed to take place by random mutation and
natural selection. I also know that random (chance) is another word for
ignorance and that mutation is not different from creation and that Natural
Selection is the same as Divine Selection.
I know also that
the religious theories deal not so much with physical facts but with meaning
and values - with spiritual facts about which you appear to be wholly unaware.
Critic:-
Now let us
return to one of Mr. H's quotes; [Quran 4.82] "Do they not then meditate on the Quran? And if it were from any
other than Allah, they would have found in it many a discrepancy."
What does this
mean to you - a discrepancy between other content in the Quran, or a
discrepancy between the Quran and reality?
Comment:-
As I have
pointed out many times, in order to understand what the Quran is saying you
will have to read and understand it according to the criteria that the Quran
has laid down and according to which it was revealed. You cannot understand it
by using assumptions you get from the physical sciences or from Christianity as
it has become or from Western cultural prejudices. It was not composed to be
understood that way.
Mr. H, like you,
simply does not understand the Quran and has mistaken it for something else.
This is like someone trying to understand a book of poetry as if was a work in
Physics. A book on religion is not the same as one in Science or Poetry or
Business or Engineering.
The word
"Meditate" in the quotation refers to consciousness. Con = together sciousnes
= awareness. When there is a unity then there is a self-consistency. The verse
clearly asks you to meditate on the Quran - but neither you nor Mr. H, nor any
other critic has done so. But you wish to argue instead of making the effort to
understand. Let me repeat - This is wholly futile.